Common Family Problems

Introduction :

Like there is no bread without holes, there does not exist a family without family problems.  All members in the family cannot be alike. Thus the differences in nature give rise to difference in opinion which leads to conflicts or misunderstandings.

Common Family Problems:

some of the common family problems are misunderstandings between the members of the family, non-cooperation by children, jealousy and enmity between sibling, financial problems, relationship problems between spouses, problems in handling the daily chores, problems with other relatives of the family and problems due to child birth and or problems due to a death in the family.

While there is no one solution for all problems, there is no solution for all problems either.Each problem has to be taken on an individual basis and the family members need to discuss problem resolution.
Some of the problems like lack of sensitivity or understanding by a child can be caused due to indiscipline. The root cause could also be that the child needs special care. Unfair treatment of one or both parents towards children can cause enmity and jealousy between siblings. Parents need to avoid pleasing one child at the expense of the other.

Divorce or separation of the parents can be a very big emotional burden for the children to carry. The whole process needs to be handled carefully with regular psychological consultation for the children.

Disrespect towards family member or outsiders, crossing boundaries, lack of empathy and violent behaviour by a family member needs to be curbed as soon as it is noticed and the family members need to take due care to identify what is causing such behaviour and tackle it.Age differences can cause differences in understanding and responding to different scenarios, family members need to recognize this and talk it out.

Conclusion to Common Family Problems:

While there is scope for a lot of problems in a family, the very reason that it’s a ‘family’ means that the members can handle these common problems amicably and live peacefully. Every member in the family should contribute towards ensuring harmony and love between the family members. This way most of the common family problems can be avoided.

Pulse Amplitude Modulation

Introduction:

In analog modulation systems, some parameter of sinusoidal carrier is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal. In pulse modulation systems, the carrier is no longer a continuous signal but consists of a pulse train, some parameter of which is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.

Types of Pulse Modulation Systems:

There are two types of pulse modulation systems:
(1) Pulse Amplitude modulation.(PAM)
(2) Pulse Time modulation. (PTM)

Pulse Amplitude Modulation

In PAM, the amplitude of the pulses of the carrier pulse train is varied in accordance with the modulating signal; whereas in PTM, the timing of the pulses of the carrier pulse train is varied.
Figure shown below explains the principle of PAM. A baseband signal f(t) is shown in (a) part, and carrier pulse train f_c(t) is shown in the (b) part. The frequency of the carrier pulse train is decided by the sampling theorem. According to the sampling theorem, if a modulating signal is band limited to X Hertz (i.e., there are no frequency components beyond X Hz in the frequency spectrum of the modulating signal), the sampling frequency must be atleast 2X Hertz and, hence, the frequency of the carrier pulse train must also be atleast 2X Hz. A pulse amplitude modulated signal f_m(t) is shown in the figure in (c) part. It can be seen that amplitude of the pulses depends on the value of f(t) during the time of the pulse. The PAM signal f_m(t) is known as discrete time signal, as this signal is discrete on time axis and continuous on amplitude axis.

In the above figure, the baseband signal f(t) is shown to have only a positive polarity. In practice, however, we can have a baseband signal with a positive as well as negative polarity. But, in such a case, the modulated pulses will also be of positive as well as negative polarities. As the transmission of such a bipolar pulses is inconvenient; a clamping circuit is used so that we always have a base band signal with only the positive polarity. 

Vsepr theory chart

Introduction :

The two scientists R.S Nyholmm and R.J Gillespie proposed the VSPER theory in 1957. VSEPR theory helps us in explaining the repulsion caused between the atoms, bonds and lone electron pairs in a molecule. VSEPR theory was developed to predict the shapes of the molecule in which atoms are bonded, including the repulsion facts.

VSEPR Theory Definition:

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory is a phenomenon used in chemistry to predict the shapes of the individual molecules based on the repulsion acting between the electrons pairs in a molecule. The other name if VSPER theory is Gillespie-Nyholm theory, named after its two main developers. In this theory, it is explained that, valance electron pairs surrounding an atom mutually repel each other and hence they will arrange themselves in such a geometry, which minimizes their repulsion between electron pairs. The number of electron pairs around an atom, that is bonding and non-bonding are called steric number. The number of electron pairs in the valance shell of a central atom is concluded by drawing the Lewis structure of the molecule in which all lone electron pairs will be shown with bonds.
Diagram of VSEPR theory Chart

                                   

Postulates of VSEPR Theory:

The main postulates of VSEPR theory are:

• The total number of electron pairs (bonding and non-bonding) determines the shape of the molecule and on the orientation of the electron pairs around the central atom.
• To minimize the repulsion between the atoms, the electron pairs arrange themselves fare away from the central atom.
• The electron pairs around the central atom can be shared electron pairs or lone pairs. The shared electron pairs are known as Bond pairs.
• The strength of repulsions between different electron pairs is in the order:

Lone pair - Lone pair > Lone pair - Shared pair > Shared pair - Shared pair.

Prediction of shapes using VSEPR theory

 VSEPR theory could predict the shapes of a molecules correctly . The following examples prove this :
a) BeCl₂ has two single Be-Cl bonds and these two bond pairs of electrons on Be atom are oriented farthest in the opposite directions to have minimum repulsions between them . BeCl₂ is a linear molecule . Similarly CO₂ molecule has two carbon - oxygen double bonds . These bond pairs of electrons are oriented in opposite directions to have minimum repulsion . Hence , CO₂ is called linear molecule O = C = O .
b) In BCl₃ there are three B-Cl single bonds or there  are three bonded electron pairs around 'B' in the valence shell and they are oriented farthest apart to have minimum repulsion among them . Hence BCl₃  molecule has trigonal planar structure with `|__ClBCl` bond angle 120^o .
c) All the four electron pairs in methane (CH₄) are bond pairs only. Therefore , the molecule is tetrahedral with a bond angle of 109^o29' .
d) Nitrogen in NH₃ has four electron pairs .
e) In water molecule, the central atom , oxygen has two lone pairs and two bond pairs of electrons . The number of lone pairs on oxygen is grater than those on nitrogen in ammonia . Due to stronger lone pair - lone lone pair repulsions , the bond angle decreases to 104^o30'. Thus , the water molecule is 'V' shaped and not linear.

Conclusion on Vsepr Theory:

VSEPR theory proved very useful in predicting the shapes of all molecule sand it also helps in explaining the distortion of angles between the atoms. VSEPR theory also explains the idea why the shape of some molecule is different with the others.